mathstoshare

Tag: group-theory

  • Double cosets and contingency tables

    Like my previous post, this blog is also motivated by a comment by Professor Persi Diaconis in his recent Stanford probability seminar. The seminar was about a way of “collapsing” a random walk on a group to a random walk on the set of double cosets. In this post, I’ll first define double cosets and then go over the example Professor Diaconis used to make us probabilists and statisticians more comfortable with all the group theory he was discussing.

    Double cosets

    Let \(G\) be a group and let \(H\) and \(K\) be two subgroups of \(G\). For each \(g \in G\), the \((H,K)\)-double coset containing \(g\) is defined to be the set

    \(HgK = \{hgk : h \in H, k \in K\}\)

    To simplify notation, we will simply write double coset instead of \((H,K)\)-double coset. The double coset of \(g\) can also be defined as the equivalence class of \(g\) under the relation

    \(g \sim g’ \Longleftrightarrow g’ = hgk\) for some \(h \in H\) and \(g \in G\)

    Like regular cosets, the above relation is indeed an equivalence relation. Thus, the group \(G\) can be written as a disjoint union of double cosets. The set of all double cosets of \(G\) is denoted by \(H\backslash G / K\). That is,

    \(H\backslash G /K = \{HgK : g \in G\}\)

    Note that if we take \(H = \{e\}\), the trivial subgroup, then the double cosets are simply the left cosets of \(K\), \(G / K\). Likewise if \(K = \{e\}\), then the double cosets are the right cosets of \(H\), \(H \backslash G\). Thus, double cosets generalise both left and right cosets.

    Double cosets in \(S_n\)

    Fix a natural number \(n > 0\). A partition of \(n\) is a finite sequence \(a = (a_1,a_2,\ldots, a_I)\) such that \(a_1,a_2,\ldots, a_I \in \mathbb{N}\), \(a_1 \ge a_2 \ge \ldots a_I > 0\) and \(\sum_{i=1}^I a_i = n\). For each partition of \(n\), \(a\), we can form a subgroup \(S_a\) of the symmetric group \(S_n\). The subgroup \(S_a\) contains all permutations \(\sigma \in S_n\) such that \(\sigma\) fixes the sets \(A_1 = \{1,\ldots, a_1\}, A_2 = \{a_1+1,\ldots, a_1 + a_2\},\ldots, A_I = \{n – a_I +1,\ldots, n\}\). Meaning that \(\sigma(A_i) = A_i\) for all \(1 \le i \le I\). Thus, a permutation \(\sigma \in S_a\) must individually permute the elements of \(A_1\), the elements of \(A_2\) and so on. This means that, in a natural way,

    \(S_a \cong S_{a_1} \times S_{a_2} \times \ldots \times S_{a_I}\)

    If we have two partitions \(a = (a_1,a_2,\ldots, a_I)\) and \(b = (b_1,b_2,\ldots,b_J)\), then we can form two subgroups \(H = S_a\) and \(K = S_b\) and consider the double cosets \(H \backslash G / K = S_a \backslash S_n / S_b\). The claim made in the seminar was that the double cosets are in one-to-one correspondence with \(I \times J\) contingency tables with row sums equal to \(a\) and column sums equal to \(b\). Before we explain this correspondence and properly define contingency tables, let’s first consider the cases when either \(H\) or \(K\) is the trivial subgroup.

    Left cosets in \(S_n\)

    Note that if \(a = (1,1,\ldots,1)\), then \(S_a\) is the trivial subgroup and, as noted above, \(S_a \backslash S_n / S_b\) is simply equal to \(S_n / S_b\). We will see that the cosets in \(S_n/S_b\) can be described by forgetting something about the permutations in \(S_n\).

    We can think of the permutations in \(S_n\) as all the ways of drawing without replacement \(n\) balls labelled \(1,2,\ldots, n\). We can think of the partition \(b = (b_1,b_2,\ldots,b_J)\) as a colouring of the \(n\) balls by \(J\) colours. We colour balls \(1,2,\ldots, b_1\) by the first colour \(c_1\), then we colour \(b_1+1,b_1+2,\ldots, b_1+b_2\) the second colour \(c_2\) and so on until we colour \(n-b_J+1, n-b_J+2,\ldots, n\) the final colour \(c_J\). Below is an example when \(n\) is equal to 6 and \(b = (3,2,1)\).

    The first three balls are coloured green, the next two are coloured red and the last ball is coloured blue.

    Note that a permutation \(\sigma \in S_n\) is in \(S_b\) if and only if we draw the balls by colour groups, i.e. we first draw all the balls with colour \(c_1\), then we draw all the balls with colour \(c_2\) and so on. Thus, continuing with the previous example, the permutation \(\sigma_1\) below is in \(S_b\) but \(\sigma_2\) is not in \(S_b\).

    The permutation \(\sigma_1\) is in \(S_b\) because the colours are in their original order but \(\sigma_1\) is not in \(S_b\) because the colours are rearranged.

    It turns out that we can think of the cosets in \(S_n \setminus S_b\) as what happens when we “forget” the labels \(1,2,\ldots,n\) and only remember the colours of the balls. By “forgetting” the labels we mean only paying attention to the list of colours. That is for all \(\sigma_1,\sigma_2 \in S_n\), \(\sigma_1 S_b = \sigma_2 S_b\) if and only if the list of colours from the draw \(\sigma_1\) is the same as the list of colours from the draw \(\sigma_2\). Thus, the below two permutations define the same coset of \(S_b\)

    When we forget the labels and only remember the colours, the permutations \(\sigma_1\) and \(\sigma_2\) look the same and thus are in the same left coset of \(S_b\).

    To see why this is true, note that \(\sigma_1 S_b = \sigma_2 S_b\) if and only if \(\sigma_2 = \sigma_1 \circ \tau\) for some \(\tau \in S_b\). Furthermore, \(\tau \in S_b\) if and only if \(\tau\) maps each colour group to itself. Recall that function composition is read right to left. Thus, the equation \(\sigma_2 = \sigma_1 \circ \tau\) means that if we first relabel the balls according to \(\tau\) and then draw the balls according to \(\sigma_1\), then we get the result as just drawing by \(\sigma_2\). That is, \(\sigma_2 = \sigma_1 \circ \tau\) for some \(\tau \in S_b\) if and only if drawing by \(\sigma_2\) is the same as first relabelling the balls within each colour group and then drawing the balls according to \(\sigma_1\). Thus, \(\sigma_1 S_b = \sigma_2 S_b\), if and only if when we forget the labels of the balls and only look at the colours, \(\sigma_1\) and \(\sigma_2\) give the same list of colours. This is illustrated with our running example below.

    If we permute the balls according to \(\tau \in S_b\) and the draw according to \(\sigma_1\), then the resulting draw is the same as if we had not permuted and drawn according to \(\sigma_2\). That is, \(\sigma_2 = \sigma_1 \circ \tau\).

    Right cosets of \(S_n\)

    Typically, the subgroup \(S_a\) is not a normal subgroup of \(S_n\). This means that the right coset \(S_a \sigma\) will not equal the left coset \(\sigma S_a\). Thus, colouring the balls and forgetting the labelling won’t describe the right cosets \(S_a \backslash S_n\). We’ll see that a different type of forgetting can be used to describe \(S_a \backslash S_n = \{S_a\sigma : \sigma \in S_n\}\).

    Fix a partition \(a = (a_1,a_2,\ldots,a_I)\) and now, instead of considering \(I\) colours, think of \(I\) different people \(p_1,p_2,\ldots,p_I\). As before, a permutation \(\sigma \in S_n\) can be thought of drawing \(n\) balls labelled \(1,\ldots,n\) without replacement. We can imagine giving the first \(a_1\) balls drawn to person \(p_1\), then giving the next \(a_2\) balls to the person \(p_2\) and so on until we give the last \(a_I\) balls to person \(p_I\). An example with \(n = 6\) and \(a = (2,2,2)\) is drawn below.

    Person \(p_1\) receives the ball labelled by 6 followed by the ball labelled 3, person \(p_2\) receives ball 2 and then ball 1 and finally person \(p_3\) receives ball 4 followed by ball 5.

    Note that \(\sigma \in S_a\) if and only if person \(p_i\) receives the balls with labels \(\sum_{k=0}^{i-1}a_k+1,\sum_{k=0}^{i-1}a_k+2,\ldots, \sum_{k=0}^i a_k\) in any order. Thus, in the below example \(\sigma_1 \in S_a\) but \(\sigma_2 \notin S_a\).

    When the balls are drawn according to \(\sigma_1\), person \(p_i\) receives the balls with labels \(2i-1\) and \(2i\), and thus \(\sigma_1 \in S_a\). On the other hand, if the balls are drawn according to \(\sigma_2\), the people receive different balls and thus \(\sigma_2 \notin S_a\).

    It turns out the cosets \(S_a \backslash S_n\) are exactly determined by “forgetting” the order in which each person \(p_i\) received their balls and only remembering which balls they received. Thus, the two permutation below belong to the same coset in \(S_a \backslash S_n\).

    When we forget the order in which each person receive their balls, the permutations \(\sigma_1\) and \(\sigma_2\) become the same and thus \(S_a \sigma_1 = S_a \sigma_2\). Note that if we coloured the balls according to the permutation \(a = (a_1,\ldots,a_I)\), then we could see that \(\sigma_1 S_a \neq \sigma_2 S_a\).

    To see why this is true in general, consider two permutations \(\sigma_1,\sigma_2\). The permutations \(\sigma_1,\sigma_2\) result in each person \(p_i\) receiving the same balls if and only if after \(\sigma_1\) we can apply a permutation \(\tau\) that fixes each subset \(A_i = \left\{\sum_{k=0}^{i-1}a_k+1,\ldots, \sum_{k=0}^i a_k\right\}\) and get \(\sigma_2\). That is, \(\sigma_1\) and \(\sigma_2\) result in each person \(p_i\) receiving the same balls if and only if \(\sigma_2 = \tau \circ \sigma_1\) for some \(\tau \in S_a\). Thus, \(\sigma_1,\sigma_2\) are the same after forgetting the order in which each person received their balls if and only if \(S_a \sigma_1 = S_a \sigma_2\). This is illustrated below,

    If we first draw the balls according to \(\sigma_1\) and then permute the balls according to \(\tau\), then the resulting draw is the same as if we had drawn according to \(\sigma_2\) and not permuted afterwards. That is, \(\sigma_2 = \tau \circ \sigma_1 \).

    We can thus see why \(S_a \backslash S_n \neq S_n / S_a\). A left coset \(\sigma S_a\) correspond to pre-composing \(\sigma\) with elements of \(S_a\) and a right cosets \(S_a\sigma\) correspond to post-composing \(\sigma\) with elements of \(S_a\).

    Contingency tables

    With the last two sections under our belts, describing the double cosets \(S_a \backslash S_n / S_b\) is straight forward. We simply have to combine our two types of forgetting. That is, we first colour the \(n\) balls with \(J\) colours according to \(b = (b_1,b_2,\ldots,b_J)\). We then draw the balls without replace and give the balls to \(I\) different people according \(a = (a_1,a_2,\ldots,a_I)\). We then forget both the original labels and the order in which each person received their balls. That is, we only remember the number of balls of each colour each person receives. Describing the double cosets by “double forgetting” is illustrated below with \(a = (2,2,2)\) and \(b = (3,2,1)\).

    The permutations \(\sigma_1\) and \(\sigma_2\) both result in person \(p_1\) receiving one green ball and one blue ball. The two permutations also results in \(p_2\) and \(p_3\) both receiving one green ball and one red ball. Thus, \(\sigma_1\) and \(\sigma_2\) are both in the same \((S_a,S_b)\)-double coset. Note however that \(\sigma_1 S_b \neq \sigma_2 S_b\) and \(S_a\sigma_1 \neq S_a \sigma_2\).

    The proof that double forgetting does indeed describe the double cosets is simply a combination of the two arguments given above. After double forgetting, the number of balls given to each person can be recorded in an \(I \times J\) table. The \(N_{ij}\) entry of the table is simply the number of balls person \(p_i\) receives of colour \(c_j\). Two permutations are the same after double forgetting if and only if they produce the same table. For example, \(\sigma_1\) and \(\sigma_2\) above both produce the following table

    Green (\(c_1\)) Red (\(c_2\))Blue (\(c_3\))Total
    Person \(p_1\)1012
    Person \(p_2\)1102
    Person \(p_3\)1102
    Total3216

    By the definition of how the balls are coloured and distributed to each person we must have for all \(1 \le i \le I\) and \(1 \le j \le J\)

    \(\sum_{j=1}^J N_{ij} = a_i \) and \(\sum_{i=1}^I N_{ij} = b_j\)

    An \(I \times J\) table with entries \(N_{ij} \in \{0,1,2,\ldots\}\) satisfying the above conditions is called a contingency table. Given such a contingency table with entries \(N_{ij}\) where the rows sum to \(a\) and the columns sum to \(b\), there always exists at least one permutation \(\sigma\) such that \(N_{ij}\) is the number of balls received by person \(p_i\) of colour \(c_i\). We have already seen that two permutations produce the same table if and only if they are in the same double coset. Thus, the double cosets \(S_a \backslash S_n /S_b\) are in one-to-one correspondence with such contingency tables.

    The hypergeometric distribution

    I would like to end this blog post with a little bit of probability and relate the contingency tables above to the hyper geometric distribution. If \(a = (m, n-m)\) for some \(m \in \{0,1,\ldots,n\}\), then the contingency tables described above have two rows and are determined by the values \(N_{11}, N_{12},\ldots, N_{1J}\) in the first row. The numbers \(N_{1j}\) are the number of balls of colour \(c_j\) the first person receives. Since the balls are drawn without replacement, this means that if we put the uniform distribution on \(S_n\), then the vector \(Y=(N_{11}, N_{12},\ldots, N_{1J})\) follows the multivariate hypergeometric distribution. Thus, if we have a random walk on \(S_n\) that quickly converges to the uniform distribution on \(S_n\), then we could use the double cosets to get a random walk that converges to the multivariate hypergeometric distribution (although there are smarter ways to do such sampling).

  • Combing groups

    Two weeks ago I gave talk titled “Two Combings of \(\mathbb{Z}^2\)”. The talk was about some material I have been discussing lately with my honours supervisor. The talk went well and I thought it would be worth sharing a written version of what I said.

    Geometric Group Theory

    Combings are a tool that gets used in a branch of mathematics called geometric group theory. Geometric group theory is a relatively new area of mathematics and is only around 30 years old. The main idea behind geometric group theory is to use tools and ideas from geometry and low dimensional topology to study and understand groups. It turns out that some of the simplest questions one can ask about groups have interesting geometric answers. For instance, the Dehn function of a group gives a natural geometric answer to the solvability of the word problem.

    Generators

    Before we can define what a combing is we’ll need to set up some notation. If \(A\) is a set then we will write \(A^*\) for the set of words written using elements of \(A\) and inverses of elements of \(A\). For instance if \(A = \{a,b\}\), then \(A^* = \{\varepsilon, a,b,a^{-1},b^{-1},aa=a^2,abb^{-1}a^{-3},\ldots\}\) (here \(\varepsilon\) refers to the empty word). If \(w\) is a word in \(A^*\), we will write \(l(w)\) for the length of \(w\). Thus \(l(\varepsilon)=0, l(a)=1, l(abb^{-1}a^{-3})=6\) and so on.

    If \(G\) is a group and \(A\) is a subset of \(G\), then we have a natural map \(\pi : A^* \rightarrow G\) given by:

    \(\pi(a_1^{\pm 1}a_2^{\pm 1}\ldots a_n^{\pm 1}) = a_1^{\pm 1}\cdot a_2^{\pm 1} \cdot \ldots \cdot a_n^{\pm 1}\).

    We will say that \(A\) generates \(G\) if the above map is surjective. In this case we will write \(\overline{w}\) for \(\pi(w)\) when \(w\) is a word in \(A^*\).

    The Word Metric

    The geometry in “geometric group theory” often arises when studying how a group acts on different geometric spaces. A group always acts on itself by left multiplication. The following definition adds a geometric aspect to this action. If \(G\) is a group with generators \(A\), then the word metric on \(G\) with respect to \(A\) is the function \(d_G : G \times G \rightarrow \mathbb{R}\) given by

    \(d_G(g,h) = \min \{ l(w) \mid w \in A^*, \overline{w} = g^{-1}h \}.\)

    That, is the distance between two group elements \(g,h \in G\) is the length of the shortest word in \(A^*\) we can use to represent \(g^{-1}h\). Equivalently the distance between \(g\) and \(h\) is the length of the shortest word we have to append to \(g\) to produce \(h\). This metric is invariant under left-multiplication by \(G\) (ie \(d_G(g\cdot h,g\cdot h’) =d_G(h,h’)\) for all \(g,h,h’ \in G\)). Thus \(G\) acts on \((G,d_G)\) by isometries.

    Words are Paths

    Now that we are viewing the group \(G\) as a geometric space, we can also change how we think of words \(w \in A^*\). Such a word can be thought of as discrete path in \(G\). That is we can think of \(w\) as a function from \(\mathbb{N}\) to \(G\). This way of thinking of \(w\) as a discrete path is best illuminated with an example. Suppose we have the word \(w = ab^2a^{-1}b\), then

    \(w(0) = e,\)
    \(w(1) = \overline{a}\)
    \(w(2) = \overline{ab}\)
    \(w(3) = \overline{ab^2}\)
    \(w(4) = \overline{ab^2a^{-1}}\)
    \(w(5) = \overline{ab^2a^{-1}b}\)
    \(w(t) = \overline{ab^2a^{-1}b},\) \(t \ge 5\).

    Thus the path \(w : \mathbb{N} \rightarrow G\) is given by taking the first \(t\) letters of \(w\) and mapping this word to the group element it represents. With this interpretation of word in \(A^*\) in mind we can now define combings.

    Combings

    Let \(G\) be a group with a finite set of generators \(A\). Then a combing of \(G\) with respect to \(A\) is a function \(\sigma : G \rightarrow A^*\) such that

    1. For all \(g \in G\), \(\overline{\sigma_g} = g\) (we will write \(\sigma_g\) for \(\sigma(g))\).
    2. There exists \(k >0\) such that for all \( g, h \in G\) with \(g \cdot \overline{a} = h\) for some \(a \in A\), we have that \(d_G(\sigma_g(t),\sigma_h(t)) \le k\) for all \(t \in \mathbb{N}\).

    The first condition says that we can think of \(\sigma\) as a way of picking a normal form \(\sigma_g \in A^*\) for each \(g \in G\). The second condition is a bit more involved. It states that if the group elements \(g, h \in G\) are distance 1 from each other in the word metric, then the paths \(\sigma_g,\sigma_h : \mathbb{N} \rightarrow G\) are within distance \(k\) of each other at any point in time.

    An Example

    Not all groups can be given a combing. Indeed if we have a combing of \(G\), then the word problem in \(G\) is solvable and the Dehn function of \(G\) is at most exponential. One group that does admit a combing is \(\mathbb{Z}^2 = \{(m,n) \mid m,n \in \mathbb{Z}\}\). This group is generated by \(A = \{(1,0),(0,1)\} = \{\beta,\gamma\}\) and one combing of \(\mathbb{Z}^2\) with respect to this generating set is

    \(\sigma_{(m,n)} = \beta^m\gamma^n\).

    The first condition of being a combing is clearly satisfied and the following picture shows that the second condition can be satisfied with \(k = 2\).

    A Non-Example

    The discrete Heisenberg group, \(H_3\), can be given by the following presentation

    \(H_3 = \langle \alpha,\beta,\gamma \mid \alpha\gamma = \gamma\alpha, \beta\gamma = \gamma\beta, \beta\alpha = \alpha\beta\gamma \rangle\).

    That is, the group \(H_3\) has three generators \(\alpha,\beta\) and \(\gamma\). The generator \(\gamma\) commutes with both \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\). The generators \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) almost commute but don’t quite as seen in the relation \(\beta\alpha = \alpha\beta\gamma\).

    Any \(h \in H_3\) can be represented uniquely as \(\sigma_h = \alpha^p\beta^m\gamma^n\) for \(p,m,n \in \mathbb{Z}\). To see why such a representation exists it’s best to consider an example. Suppose that \(h = \overline{\gamma\beta\alpha\gamma\alpha\beta\gamma}\). Then we can use the fact that \(\gamma\) commutes with \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) to push all \(\gamma\)’s to the right and we get that \(h = \overline{\beta\alpha\alpha\beta\gamma^3}\). We can then apply the third relation to switch the order of \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) on the right. This gives us that that \(h = \overline{\alpha\beta\gamma\alpha\beta\gamma^3}=\overline{\alpha\beta\alpha\beta\gamma^4}\). If we apply this relation once more we get that \(h = \overline{\alpha^2\beta^2\gamma^5}\) and thus \(\sigma_h = \alpha^2\beta^2\gamma^5\). The procedure used to write \(h\) in the form \(\alpha^p\beta^m\gamma^n\) can be generalized to any word written using \(\alpha^{\pm 1}, \beta^{\pm 1}, \gamma^{\pm 1}\).

    The fact the such a representation is unique (that is if \(\overline{\alpha^p\beta^m\gamma^n} = \overline{\alpha^{p’}\beta^{m’}\gamma^{n’}}\), then \((p,m,n) = (p’,m’,n’)\)) is harder to justify but can be proved by defining an action of \(H_3\) on \(\mathbb{Z}^3\). Thus we can define a function \(\sigma : H_3 \rightarrow \{\alpha,\beta,\gamma\}^*\) by setting \(\sigma_h\) to be the unique word of the form \(\alpha^p \beta^m\gamma^n\) that represents \(h\). This map satisfies the first condition of being a combing and has many nice properties. These include that it is easy to check whether or not a word in \(\{\alpha,\beta,\gamma\}^*\) is equal to \(\sigma_h\) for some \(h \in H_3\) and there are fast algorithms for putting a word in \(\{\alpha,\beta,\gamma\}^*\) into its normal form. Unfortunately this map fails to be a combing.

    The reason why \(\sigma : H_3 \rightarrow \{\alpha,\beta,\gamma\}^*\) fails to be a combing can be seen back when we turned \(\overline{ \gamma\beta\alpha\gamma\alpha\beta\gamma }\) into \( \overline{\alpha^2\beta^2\gamma^5} \). To move \(\alpha\)’s on the right to the left we had to move past \(\beta\)’s and produce \(\gamma\)’s in the process. More concretely fix \(m \in \mathbb{N}\) and let \(h = \overline{\beta^m}\) and \(g = \overline{\beta^m \alpha} = \overline{\alpha \beta^m\gamma^m}\). We have \(\sigma_h = \beta^m\) and \(\sigma_g = \alpha \beta^m \gamma^m\). The group elements \(g\) and \(h\) differ by a generator. Thus, if \(\sigma\) was a combing we should be able to uniformly bound \(d_{H_3}(\sigma_g(t),\sigma_h(t))\) for all \(t \in \mathbb{N}\) and all \(m \in \mathbb{N}\).

    If we then let \(t = m+1\), we can recall that

    \(d_{H_3}(\sigma_g(t),\sigma_h(t)) = \min\{l(w) \mid w \in \{\alpha,\beta,\gamma\}^*, \overline{w} = \sigma_g(t)^{-1}\sigma_h(t)\}.\)

    We have that \(\sigma_h(t) = \overline{\beta^m}\) and \(\sigma_g(t) = \overline{\alpha \beta^m}\) and thus

    \(\sigma_g(t)^{-1}\sigma_h(t) = (\overline{\alpha\beta^m})^{-1}\overline{\beta^m} = \overline{\beta^{-m}\alpha^{-1}\beta^m} = \overline{\alpha^{-1}\beta^{-m}\gamma^{m}\beta^m}=\overline{\alpha^{-1}\gamma^{m}}.\)

    The group element \(\overline{\alpha^{-1}\gamma^{m}}\) cannot be represented as a shorter element of \(\{\alpha,\beta,\gamma\}^*\) and thus \(d_{H_3}(\sigma_g(t),\sigma_h(t)) = m+1\) and the map \(\sigma \) is not a combing.

    Can we comb the Heisenberg group?

    This leaves us with a question, can we comb the group \(H_3\)? It turns out that we can but the answer actually lies in finding a better combing of \(\mathbb{Z}^2\). This is because \(H_3\) contains the subgroup \(\mathbb{Z}^2 \cong \langle \beta, \gamma \rangle \subseteq H_3\). Rather than using the normal form \(\sigma_h = \alpha^p \beta^m \gamma^n\), we will use \(\sigma’_h = \alpha^p \tau_{(m,n)}\) where \(\tau : \mathbb{Z}^2 \rightarrow \{\beta,\gamma \}^*\) is a combing of \(\mathbb{Z}^2\) that is more symmetric. The word \(\tau_{(m,n)}\) is defined to be the sequence of \(m \) \(\beta\)’s and \(n\) \(\gamma\)’s that stays closest to the straight line in \(\mathbb{R}^2\) that joins \((0,0)\) to \((n,p)\) (when we view \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) as representing \((1,0)\) and \((0,1)\) respectively). Below is an illustration:

    This new function isn’t quite a combing of \(H_3\) but it is the next best thing! It is an asynchronous combing. An asynchronous combing is one where we again require that the paths \(\sigma_h,\sigma_g\) stay close to each other whenever \(h\) and \(g\) are close to each other. However we allow the paths \(\sigma_h\) and \(\sigma_g\) to travel at different speeds. Many of the results that can be proved for combable groups extend to asynchronously combable groups.

    References

    Hairdressing in Groups by Sarah Rees is a survey paper that includes lots examples of groups that do or do not admit combings. It also talks about the language complexity of a combing, something I didn’t have time to touch on in my talk.

    Combings of Semidirect Products and 3-Manifold Groups by Martin Bridson contains a proof that \(H_3\) is asynchornously combable. He actually proves the more general result that any group of the form \(\mathbb{Z}^n \rtimes \mathbb{Z}^m\) is asynchronously combable.

    Thank you to my supervisor, Tony Licata, for suggesting I give my talk on combing \(H_3\) and for all the support he has given me so far.